In metaphysics, the problem of universals refers to the question of whether properties exist, and if so, what they are. Properties are qualities or relations that two or more entities have in common. The various kinds of properties, such as qualities and relations are referred to as universals. For instance, one can imagine three cup holders on a table that have in common the quality of being circular or circularity, or two daughters that have in common being the daughter of Frank. There are many such properties, such as being human, red, male or female, liquid, big and small, taller than, father of, etc.
While philosophers agree that human beings talk and think about properties, they disagree on whether these universals exist in reality or merely in thought and speech.
The main positions on the issue are generally considered to be: realism, nominalism, and idealism (sometimes simply called "anti-realism" with regard to universals).
Realism
The realist school claims that universals are real — they exist and are distinct from the particulars that instantiate them. There are various forms of realism. Two major forms are Platonic realism (universalia ante res) and Aristotelian realism (universalia in rebus). Platonic realism is the view that universals are real entities and they exist independent of particulars. Aristotelian realism, on the other hand, is the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them.
Realists tend to argue that universals must be posited as distinct entities in order to account for various phenomena. For example, a common realist argument, arguably found in Plato, is that universals are required for certain general words to have meaning and for the sentences in which they occur to be true or false.
Take the sentence "Djivan Gasparyan is a musician". The realist may claim that this sentence is only meaningful and expresses a truth because there is an individual, Djivan Gasparyan, who possesses a certain quality, musicianship. Thus it is assumed that the property is a universal which is distinct from the particular individual who has the property.
Norminalism
Nominalists assert that only individuals or particulars exist and deny that universals are real (i.e. that they exist as entities or beings). The term "nominalism" comes from the Latin nomen ("name"), since the nominalist philosopher agrees that we predicate the same property of multiple entities but argues that the entities only share a name, not a real quality, in common. There are various forms of nominalism (which is sometimes also referred to as "terminism"), three major forms are resemblance nominalism, conceptualism, and trope nminalism. Nominalism has been endorsed or defended by many, including William of Ockham, Peter Abelard, D.CX. Williams (1953), Davud Lewis (1983), and arguably H. H. Price (1953) and W. V. O. Quine (1961).
Nominalists often argue for their view by claiming that nominalism can account for all the relevant phenomena, and therefore—by Ockham’s razor or some sort of principle of simplicity—nominalism is preferable, since it posits fewer entities. Whether nominalism can truly account for all of the relevant phenomena is debated.
Idealism
Idealists, such as Kant and Hegel, posit that universals are not real, but are ideas in the mind of rational beings. Idealists do not reject universals as arbitrary names; rather, they treat universals as fundamental categories of pure reason (or as secondary concepts derived from those fundamental categories).
Universals, in idealism, are intrinsically tied to the rationality of the subject making the judgment.
For instance, when someone judges that two cup holders are both circular they are not noticing a mind-independent thing ("circularity") that is in both objects, nor are they simply applying a name ("circular") to both. Rather, they partially constitute the very concept of cup holder by supplying it with the concept of circularity, which already exists as an idea in their rational mind.
Thus, for idealists, the problem of universals is only tangentially a metaphysical problem; it is more of a problem of psychology and epistemology.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_universals
While philosophers agree that human beings talk and think about properties, they disagree on whether these universals exist in reality or merely in thought and speech.
The main positions on the issue are generally considered to be: realism, nominalism, and idealism (sometimes simply called "anti-realism" with regard to universals).
Realism
The realist school claims that universals are real — they exist and are distinct from the particulars that instantiate them. There are various forms of realism. Two major forms are Platonic realism (universalia ante res) and Aristotelian realism (universalia in rebus). Platonic realism is the view that universals are real entities and they exist independent of particulars. Aristotelian realism, on the other hand, is the view that universals are real entities, but their existence is dependent on the particulars that exemplify them.
Realists tend to argue that universals must be posited as distinct entities in order to account for various phenomena. For example, a common realist argument, arguably found in Plato, is that universals are required for certain general words to have meaning and for the sentences in which they occur to be true or false.
Take the sentence "Djivan Gasparyan is a musician". The realist may claim that this sentence is only meaningful and expresses a truth because there is an individual, Djivan Gasparyan, who possesses a certain quality, musicianship. Thus it is assumed that the property is a universal which is distinct from the particular individual who has the property.
Norminalism
Nominalists assert that only individuals or particulars exist and deny that universals are real (i.e. that they exist as entities or beings). The term "nominalism" comes from the Latin nomen ("name"), since the nominalist philosopher agrees that we predicate the same property of multiple entities but argues that the entities only share a name, not a real quality, in common. There are various forms of nominalism (which is sometimes also referred to as "terminism"), three major forms are resemblance nominalism, conceptualism, and trope nminalism. Nominalism has been endorsed or defended by many, including William of Ockham, Peter Abelard, D.CX. Williams (1953), Davud Lewis (1983), and arguably H. H. Price (1953) and W. V. O. Quine (1961).
Nominalists often argue for their view by claiming that nominalism can account for all the relevant phenomena, and therefore—by Ockham’s razor or some sort of principle of simplicity—nominalism is preferable, since it posits fewer entities. Whether nominalism can truly account for all of the relevant phenomena is debated.
Idealism
Idealists, such as Kant and Hegel, posit that universals are not real, but are ideas in the mind of rational beings. Idealists do not reject universals as arbitrary names; rather, they treat universals as fundamental categories of pure reason (or as secondary concepts derived from those fundamental categories).
Universals, in idealism, are intrinsically tied to the rationality of the subject making the judgment.
For instance, when someone judges that two cup holders are both circular they are not noticing a mind-independent thing ("circularity") that is in both objects, nor are they simply applying a name ("circular") to both. Rather, they partially constitute the very concept of cup holder by supplying it with the concept of circularity, which already exists as an idea in their rational mind.
Thus, for idealists, the problem of universals is only tangentially a metaphysical problem; it is more of a problem of psychology and epistemology.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_of_universals
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